The dark side of sport: managerial bullying and harassment challenges in different types of sports
Abstract
Bullying and harassment are the dark side of sport, not open to spectators and often ignored by coaches and leaders. Therefore, the research aim is to identify prevalence of bullying and harassment in Lithuanian organized sport with regard to individual, combat and team sports, highlighting measures/actions used to manage these phenomena. Survey research uses quantitative research strategy. The study involved 1440 organized sports athletes representing all sports types. The prevalence of bullying actions with regard to separate type of sports was identified: in individual sports (9.8%), in combat sports (8.5%), and in team sports (7.3%). The analysis by four specific actions has shown that athletes experienced most of such actions in combat sports (20%); almost half less, in team sports (10.8%) and individual sports (10.1%). The results of the study show a lack of bullying and harassment intervention and of comprehensive complaint submission procedures, while coaches particularly often ignore athletes’ negative behaviour. The article discusses managerial causes of bullying and harassment in the sports organization, presenting a holistic view of the phenomenon, including the forms of violence that have been little studied so far. This will help leaders to carry out prevention and intervention activities the specificity of which comes to prominence depending on the types of sports.
Keyword : bullying, harassment, sport organization, types of sports, management, intervention, BHISQ, Lithuania
How to Cite
Vveinhardt, J., Fominienė, V. B., & Andriukaitienė, R. (2020). The dark side of sport: managerial bullying and harassment challenges in different types of sports. Journal of Business Economics and Management, 21(6), 1525-1542. https://doi.org/10.3846/jbem.2020.13458
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
References
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Buss, A. H., & Durkee, A. (1957). An inventory for assessing different kinds of hostility. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 21(4), 343–349. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0046900
Cosgrove, H. E., & Nickerson, A. B. (2017). Anti-bullying/harassment legislation and educator perceptions of severity, effectiveness, and school climate: A cross-sectional analysis. Educational Policy, 31(4), 518–545. https://doi.org/10.1177/0895904815604217
Crawshaw, L. (2009). Workplace bullying? Mobbing? Harassment? Distraction by a thousand definitions. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 61(3), 263–267. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016590
Donohue, B., Chow, G. M., Pitts, M., Loughran, T., Schubert, K. N., Gavrilova, Y., & Allen, D. N. (2015). Piloting a family-supported approach to concurrently optimize mental health and sport performance in athletes. Clinical Case Studies, 14(3), 159–177. https://doi.org/10.1177/1534650114548311
Espelage, D. L., & Holt, M. (2001). Bullying and victimization during early adolescence: Peer influences and psychosocial correlates. Journal of Emotional Abuse, 2(2–3), 123–142. https://doi.org/10.1300/J135v02n02_08
Evans, B., Adler, A., MacDonald, D., & Côté, J. (2016). Bullying victimization and perpetration among adolescent sport teammates. Pediatric Exercise Science, 28(2), 296–303. https://doi.org/10.1123/pes.2015-0088
Fisher, L. A., & Dzikus, L. (2017). Bullying in Sport and Performance Psychology. In E. Acevedo (Eds.), Oxford research encyclopedia of psychology (pp. 1–4). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190236557.013.169
Gillen, P., Sinclair, M., & Kernohan, G. (2004). A concept analysis of bullying in midwifery. EvidenceBased Midwifery, 2(2), 46–52.
Hellström, L., Persson, L., & Hagquist, C. (2015). Understanding and defining bullying–adolescents’ own views. Archives of Public Health, 73(1), 4. https://doi.org/10.1186/2049-3258-73-4
Holt, N. L., Neely, K. C., Slater, L. G., Camiré, M., Côté, J., Fraser-Thomas, J., MacDonald, D., Strachan, L., & Tamminen, K. A. (2017). A grounded theory of positive youth development through sport based on results from a qualitative meta-study. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 10(1), 1–49. https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2016.1180704
Jewett, R., Kerr, G., MacPherson, E., & Stirling, A. (2019). Experiences of bullying victimisation in female interuniversity athletes. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2019.1611902
Kavussanu, M., & Boardley, I. D. (2009). The prosocial and antisocial behavior in sport scale. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 31(1), 97–117. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.31.1.97
Kerr, G., Jewett, R., MacPherson, E., & Stirling, A. (2016). Student–athletes’ experiences of bullying on intercollegiate teams. Journal for the Study of Sports and Athletes in Education, 10(2), 132–149. https://doi.org/10.1080/19357397.2016.1218648
Kerr, Z. Y., Roos, K. G., Schmidt, J. D., & Marshall, S. W. (2013). Prevention and management of physical and social environment risk factors for sports-related injuries. American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine, 7(2), 138–153. https://doi.org/10.1177/1559827612450683
Lund, E. M., & Ross, S. W. (2017). Bullying perpetration, victimization, and demographic differences in college students: A review of the literature. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 18(3), 348–360. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838015620818
Marracho, P., Pereira, A., Nery, M., & Coelho, E. (2019). Bullying in school sports vs federated sports: Exploratory study in the interior Northern region of Portugal. Motricidade, 15(1), 210–210.
Mattey, E., McCloughan, L. J., & Hanrahan, S. J. (2014). Anti-vilification programs in adolescent sport. Journal of Sport Psychology in Action, 5(3), 135–146. https://doi.org/10.1080/21520704.2014.925528
Maxwell, J. P., & Moores, E. (2007). The development of a short scale measuring aggressiveness and anger in competitive atletes. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 8(2), 179–193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2006.03.002
McMullen, J. G. (2014). Addressing abusive conduct in youth sports. Marquette Sports Law Review, 25(1), 181–205.
Merkel, D. L. (2013). Youth sport: Positive and negative impact on young athletes. Open Access Journal of Sports Medicine, 4, 151–160. https://doi.org/10.2147/OAJSM.S33556
Menesini, E., & Salmivalli, C. (2017). Bullying in schools: the state of knowledge and effective interventions. Psychology, Health & Medicine, 22(sup1), 240–253. https://doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2017.1279740
Mishna, F., Kerr, G., McInroy, L. B., & MacPherson, E. (2019). Student athletes’ experiences of bullying in intercollegiate sport. Journal for the Study of Sports and Athletes in Education, 13(1), 53–73. https://doi.org/10.1080/19357397.2019.1581512
Moore, S. E., Norman, R. E., Suetani, S., Thomas, H. J., Sly, P. D., & Scott, J. G. (2017). Consequences of bullying victimization in childhood and adolescence: A systematic review and meta-analysis. World Journal of Psychiatry, 7(1), 60–76. https://doi.org/10.5498/wjp.v7.i1.60
Mountjoy, M., Brackenridge, C., Arrington, M., Blauwet, C., Carska-Sheppard, A., Fasting, K., Kirby, S., Leahy, T., Marks, S., Martin, K., Starr, K., Tiivas, A., & Budgett, R. (2016). International Olympic Committee consensus statement: Harassment and abuse (non-accidental violence) in sport. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 50(17), 1019–1029. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2016-096121
Nery, M., Neto, C., Rosado, A., & Smith, P. K. (2019). Bullying in youth sport training: A nationwide exploratory and descriptive research in Portugal. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 16(4), 447–463. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2018.1447459
Notelaers, G., & Van der Heijden, B. I. J. M. (2019). Construct validity in workplace bullying and harassment research. In P. D’Cruz, E. Noronha, G. Notelaers, & C. Rayner (Eds.), Concepts, approaches and methods. Handbooks of workplace bullying, emotional abuse and harassment (pp. 1–56). Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-5334-4_11-1
Patchin, J. W., & Hinduja, S. (2015). Measuring cyberbullying: Implications for research. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 23, 69–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2015.05.013
Peltola, M., & Kivijärvi, A. (2017). Sports and structured leisure as sites of victimization for children and young people in Finland: Looking at the significance of gender and ethnicity. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 52(8), 955–971. https://doi.org/10.1177/1012690216636607
Pitts, B. G., Fielding, L. W., & Miller, L. K. (1994). Industry segmentation theory and the sport industry: Developing a sport industry segment model. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 3(1), 15–24.
Roberts, V., Sojo, V., & Grant, F. (2019). Organisational factors and non-accidental violence in sport: A systematic review. Sport Management Review. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2019.03.001
Shannon, C. S. (2013). Bullying in recreation and sport settings: Exploring risk factors, prevention efforts, and intervention strategies. Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, 31(1), 15–33.
Smith, P. K. (2016). Bullying: Definition, types, causes, consequences and intervention. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 10(9), 519–532. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12266
Smith, P. K., del Barrio, C., & Tokunaga, R. (2013). Definitions of bullying and cyberbullying: How useful are the terms? In S. Bauman, J, Walker & D. Cross (Eds.), Principles of cyberbullying research: Definition, methods, and measures (pp. 64–86). Routledge.
Stefaniuk, L., & Bridel, W. (2018). Anti-bullying policies in Canadian Sport: An absent presence. Journal of Park & Recreation Administration, 36(2). https://doi.org/10.18666/JPRA-2018-V36-I2-8439
Steinfeldt, J. A., Vaughan, E. L., LaFollette, J. R., & Steinfeldt, M. C. (2012). Bullying among adolescent football players: Role of masculinity and moral atmosphere. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 13(4), 340–353. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026645
Stirling, A. E., Bridges, E. J., Cruz, E. L., & Mountjoy, M. L. (2011). Canadian Academy of Sport and Exercise Medicine position paper: Abuse, harassment, and bullying in sport. Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine, 21(5), 385–391. https://doi.org/10.1097/JSM.0b013e31820f9248
Stirling, A. E., & Kerr, G. A. (2016). Athlete maltreatment. In R. J. Schinke, K. R. McGannon, & B. Smith (Eds.), Routledge international handbook of sport psychology (pp. 214–224). Routledge.
Škorić, S. (2018). Characteristics of sport managers and challenges facing sport organisations. In 9th International Conference “An enterprise odyssey: Managing change to achieve quality development” (pp. 497–503). University of Zagreb, Faculty of Economics & Business.
Twemlow, S. W., & Sacco, F. C. (2013). Bullying is everywhere: Ten universal truths about bullying as a social process in schools & communities. Psychoanalytic Inquiry, 33(2), 73–89. https://doi.org/10.1080/07351690.2013.759484
Van Rheenen, D. (2013). Exploitation in college sports: Race, revenue, and educational reward. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 48(5), 550–571. https://doi.org/10.1177/1012690212450218
Vveinhardt, J. (2012). Identification of the reliability of methodological characteristics of quality in the diagnostic instrument for mobbing as discrimination in employee relations on purpose to improve the climate in Lithuanian organisations. Transformations in Business & Economics, 11(2), 218–232.
Vveinhardt, J., & Andriukaitienė, R. (2017, October 5–7). Bullying and single cases of harassment in women’s basketball teams. In International Scientific-Practical Symposium. In collaboration with the European Group for Research into Elderly and Physical Activity “Climbing the Ladder of Life, Active and Fit” (pp. 35–36). Kaunas, Lithuania.
Vveinhardt, J., & Fominiene, V. B. (2020a). Gender and age variables of bullying in organized sport: Is bullying “grown out of”? Journal of Human Sport and Exercise, 15(4), in press. https://doi.org/10.14198/jhse.2020.154.03
Vveinhardt, J., & Fominienė, V. B. (2020b). Prevalence of bullying and harassment in youth sport: the case of different types of sport and participant roles. Journal of Human Sport and Exercise (in press).
Vveinhardt, J., Fominiene, V. B., & Andriukaitiene, R. (2019). “Omerta” in organized sport: Bullying and harassment as determinants of threats of social sustainability at the individual level. Sustainability, 11(9), 2474. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11092474
Vveinhardt, J., Komskiene, D., & Romero, Z. (2017). Bullying and harassment prevention in youth basketball teams. Transformations in Business & Economics, 16(1), 232–241.
Vveinhardt, J., & Streimikiene, D. (2015). The questionnaire for diagnosing mobbing in employees’ relationships. Economic Research-Ekonomska Istraživanja, 28(1), 441–466. https://doi.org/10.1080/1331677X.2015.1075415
Vveinhardt, J., Fominiene, V. B., & Streimikiene, D. (2020). A new tool contributing to the management of bullying and harassment in higher education institutions. Polish Journal of Management Studies, 21(2), 446–461. https://doi.org/10.17512/pjms.2020.21.2.31
Waldron, J. J. (2012). A social norms approach to hazing prevention workshops. Journal of Sport Psychology in Action, 3(1), 12–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/21520704.2011.639854
Yildiz, S. (2015). The relationship between bullying and burnout: An empirical investigation of Turkish professional football players. Sport, Business and Management, 5(1), 6–20. https://doi.org/10.1108/SBM-09-2012-0034
Buss, A. H., & Durkee, A. (1957). An inventory for assessing different kinds of hostility. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 21(4), 343–349. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0046900
Cosgrove, H. E., & Nickerson, A. B. (2017). Anti-bullying/harassment legislation and educator perceptions of severity, effectiveness, and school climate: A cross-sectional analysis. Educational Policy, 31(4), 518–545. https://doi.org/10.1177/0895904815604217
Crawshaw, L. (2009). Workplace bullying? Mobbing? Harassment? Distraction by a thousand definitions. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 61(3), 263–267. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016590
Donohue, B., Chow, G. M., Pitts, M., Loughran, T., Schubert, K. N., Gavrilova, Y., & Allen, D. N. (2015). Piloting a family-supported approach to concurrently optimize mental health and sport performance in athletes. Clinical Case Studies, 14(3), 159–177. https://doi.org/10.1177/1534650114548311
Espelage, D. L., & Holt, M. (2001). Bullying and victimization during early adolescence: Peer influences and psychosocial correlates. Journal of Emotional Abuse, 2(2–3), 123–142. https://doi.org/10.1300/J135v02n02_08
Evans, B., Adler, A., MacDonald, D., & Côté, J. (2016). Bullying victimization and perpetration among adolescent sport teammates. Pediatric Exercise Science, 28(2), 296–303. https://doi.org/10.1123/pes.2015-0088
Fisher, L. A., & Dzikus, L. (2017). Bullying in Sport and Performance Psychology. In E. Acevedo (Eds.), Oxford research encyclopedia of psychology (pp. 1–4). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190236557.013.169
Gillen, P., Sinclair, M., & Kernohan, G. (2004). A concept analysis of bullying in midwifery. EvidenceBased Midwifery, 2(2), 46–52.
Hellström, L., Persson, L., & Hagquist, C. (2015). Understanding and defining bullying–adolescents’ own views. Archives of Public Health, 73(1), 4. https://doi.org/10.1186/2049-3258-73-4
Holt, N. L., Neely, K. C., Slater, L. G., Camiré, M., Côté, J., Fraser-Thomas, J., MacDonald, D., Strachan, L., & Tamminen, K. A. (2017). A grounded theory of positive youth development through sport based on results from a qualitative meta-study. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 10(1), 1–49. https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2016.1180704
Jewett, R., Kerr, G., MacPherson, E., & Stirling, A. (2019). Experiences of bullying victimisation in female interuniversity athletes. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2019.1611902
Kavussanu, M., & Boardley, I. D. (2009). The prosocial and antisocial behavior in sport scale. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 31(1), 97–117. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.31.1.97
Kerr, G., Jewett, R., MacPherson, E., & Stirling, A. (2016). Student–athletes’ experiences of bullying on intercollegiate teams. Journal for the Study of Sports and Athletes in Education, 10(2), 132–149. https://doi.org/10.1080/19357397.2016.1218648
Kerr, Z. Y., Roos, K. G., Schmidt, J. D., & Marshall, S. W. (2013). Prevention and management of physical and social environment risk factors for sports-related injuries. American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine, 7(2), 138–153. https://doi.org/10.1177/1559827612450683
Lund, E. M., & Ross, S. W. (2017). Bullying perpetration, victimization, and demographic differences in college students: A review of the literature. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 18(3), 348–360. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838015620818
Marracho, P., Pereira, A., Nery, M., & Coelho, E. (2019). Bullying in school sports vs federated sports: Exploratory study in the interior Northern region of Portugal. Motricidade, 15(1), 210–210.
Mattey, E., McCloughan, L. J., & Hanrahan, S. J. (2014). Anti-vilification programs in adolescent sport. Journal of Sport Psychology in Action, 5(3), 135–146. https://doi.org/10.1080/21520704.2014.925528
Maxwell, J. P., & Moores, E. (2007). The development of a short scale measuring aggressiveness and anger in competitive atletes. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 8(2), 179–193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2006.03.002
McMullen, J. G. (2014). Addressing abusive conduct in youth sports. Marquette Sports Law Review, 25(1), 181–205.
Merkel, D. L. (2013). Youth sport: Positive and negative impact on young athletes. Open Access Journal of Sports Medicine, 4, 151–160. https://doi.org/10.2147/OAJSM.S33556
Menesini, E., & Salmivalli, C. (2017). Bullying in schools: the state of knowledge and effective interventions. Psychology, Health & Medicine, 22(sup1), 240–253. https://doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2017.1279740
Mishna, F., Kerr, G., McInroy, L. B., & MacPherson, E. (2019). Student athletes’ experiences of bullying in intercollegiate sport. Journal for the Study of Sports and Athletes in Education, 13(1), 53–73. https://doi.org/10.1080/19357397.2019.1581512
Moore, S. E., Norman, R. E., Suetani, S., Thomas, H. J., Sly, P. D., & Scott, J. G. (2017). Consequences of bullying victimization in childhood and adolescence: A systematic review and meta-analysis. World Journal of Psychiatry, 7(1), 60–76. https://doi.org/10.5498/wjp.v7.i1.60
Mountjoy, M., Brackenridge, C., Arrington, M., Blauwet, C., Carska-Sheppard, A., Fasting, K., Kirby, S., Leahy, T., Marks, S., Martin, K., Starr, K., Tiivas, A., & Budgett, R. (2016). International Olympic Committee consensus statement: Harassment and abuse (non-accidental violence) in sport. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 50(17), 1019–1029. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2016-096121
Nery, M., Neto, C., Rosado, A., & Smith, P. K. (2019). Bullying in youth sport training: A nationwide exploratory and descriptive research in Portugal. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 16(4), 447–463. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2018.1447459
Notelaers, G., & Van der Heijden, B. I. J. M. (2019). Construct validity in workplace bullying and harassment research. In P. D’Cruz, E. Noronha, G. Notelaers, & C. Rayner (Eds.), Concepts, approaches and methods. Handbooks of workplace bullying, emotional abuse and harassment (pp. 1–56). Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-5334-4_11-1
Patchin, J. W., & Hinduja, S. (2015). Measuring cyberbullying: Implications for research. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 23, 69–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2015.05.013
Peltola, M., & Kivijärvi, A. (2017). Sports and structured leisure as sites of victimization for children and young people in Finland: Looking at the significance of gender and ethnicity. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 52(8), 955–971. https://doi.org/10.1177/1012690216636607
Pitts, B. G., Fielding, L. W., & Miller, L. K. (1994). Industry segmentation theory and the sport industry: Developing a sport industry segment model. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 3(1), 15–24.
Roberts, V., Sojo, V., & Grant, F. (2019). Organisational factors and non-accidental violence in sport: A systematic review. Sport Management Review. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2019.03.001
Shannon, C. S. (2013). Bullying in recreation and sport settings: Exploring risk factors, prevention efforts, and intervention strategies. Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, 31(1), 15–33.
Smith, P. K. (2016). Bullying: Definition, types, causes, consequences and intervention. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 10(9), 519–532. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12266
Smith, P. K., del Barrio, C., & Tokunaga, R. (2013). Definitions of bullying and cyberbullying: How useful are the terms? In S. Bauman, J, Walker & D. Cross (Eds.), Principles of cyberbullying research: Definition, methods, and measures (pp. 64–86). Routledge.
Stefaniuk, L., & Bridel, W. (2018). Anti-bullying policies in Canadian Sport: An absent presence. Journal of Park & Recreation Administration, 36(2). https://doi.org/10.18666/JPRA-2018-V36-I2-8439
Steinfeldt, J. A., Vaughan, E. L., LaFollette, J. R., & Steinfeldt, M. C. (2012). Bullying among adolescent football players: Role of masculinity and moral atmosphere. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 13(4), 340–353. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026645
Stirling, A. E., Bridges, E. J., Cruz, E. L., & Mountjoy, M. L. (2011). Canadian Academy of Sport and Exercise Medicine position paper: Abuse, harassment, and bullying in sport. Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine, 21(5), 385–391. https://doi.org/10.1097/JSM.0b013e31820f9248
Stirling, A. E., & Kerr, G. A. (2016). Athlete maltreatment. In R. J. Schinke, K. R. McGannon, & B. Smith (Eds.), Routledge international handbook of sport psychology (pp. 214–224). Routledge.
Škorić, S. (2018). Characteristics of sport managers and challenges facing sport organisations. In 9th International Conference “An enterprise odyssey: Managing change to achieve quality development” (pp. 497–503). University of Zagreb, Faculty of Economics & Business.
Twemlow, S. W., & Sacco, F. C. (2013). Bullying is everywhere: Ten universal truths about bullying as a social process in schools & communities. Psychoanalytic Inquiry, 33(2), 73–89. https://doi.org/10.1080/07351690.2013.759484
Van Rheenen, D. (2013). Exploitation in college sports: Race, revenue, and educational reward. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 48(5), 550–571. https://doi.org/10.1177/1012690212450218
Vveinhardt, J. (2012). Identification of the reliability of methodological characteristics of quality in the diagnostic instrument for mobbing as discrimination in employee relations on purpose to improve the climate in Lithuanian organisations. Transformations in Business & Economics, 11(2), 218–232.
Vveinhardt, J., & Andriukaitienė, R. (2017, October 5–7). Bullying and single cases of harassment in women’s basketball teams. In International Scientific-Practical Symposium. In collaboration with the European Group for Research into Elderly and Physical Activity “Climbing the Ladder of Life, Active and Fit” (pp. 35–36). Kaunas, Lithuania.
Vveinhardt, J., & Fominiene, V. B. (2020a). Gender and age variables of bullying in organized sport: Is bullying “grown out of”? Journal of Human Sport and Exercise, 15(4), in press. https://doi.org/10.14198/jhse.2020.154.03
Vveinhardt, J., & Fominienė, V. B. (2020b). Prevalence of bullying and harassment in youth sport: the case of different types of sport and participant roles. Journal of Human Sport and Exercise (in press).
Vveinhardt, J., Fominiene, V. B., & Andriukaitiene, R. (2019). “Omerta” in organized sport: Bullying and harassment as determinants of threats of social sustainability at the individual level. Sustainability, 11(9), 2474. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11092474
Vveinhardt, J., Komskiene, D., & Romero, Z. (2017). Bullying and harassment prevention in youth basketball teams. Transformations in Business & Economics, 16(1), 232–241.
Vveinhardt, J., & Streimikiene, D. (2015). The questionnaire for diagnosing mobbing in employees’ relationships. Economic Research-Ekonomska Istraživanja, 28(1), 441–466. https://doi.org/10.1080/1331677X.2015.1075415
Vveinhardt, J., Fominiene, V. B., & Streimikiene, D. (2020). A new tool contributing to the management of bullying and harassment in higher education institutions. Polish Journal of Management Studies, 21(2), 446–461. https://doi.org/10.17512/pjms.2020.21.2.31
Waldron, J. J. (2012). A social norms approach to hazing prevention workshops. Journal of Sport Psychology in Action, 3(1), 12–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/21520704.2011.639854
Yildiz, S. (2015). The relationship between bullying and burnout: An empirical investigation of Turkish professional football players. Sport, Business and Management, 5(1), 6–20. https://doi.org/10.1108/SBM-09-2012-0034