Targeting smart shoppers: a cross-country model
Abstract
The purpose of this article is to provide a robust and consistent cross-country measurement of the smart-shopper self-concept. Drawing on existing single-country studies, our work extends research by validating a pioneer cross-country scale that measures the smart-shopping mechanism in a holistic manner. Survey data were collected from 1,233 shoppers from six different Western countries. Cross-country equivalence was assessed using multigroup confirmatory factor analysis using configural, metric, and factor variance invariance tests. The results indicate that the smart-shopper self-concept is a second-order construct comprising two dimensions: smartshopper-attributed behavior and smart-shopper feelings. Our findings also reveal that consumers in the different countries exhibit different degrees of smart-shopper self-concept and differ in their perceptions of the affective and behavioral responses generated during a smart purchase process. Marketing practitioners looking to target smart shoppers across multiple countries could build on the findings of this study to develop effective international segmentation and positioning strategies.
Keyword : smart shopping, smart shopper, cross-country, measurement invariance, scale development, self-concept, feeling, behavior
How to Cite
Gómez-Suárez, M., Quinones, M., & Yagüe, M. J. (2020). Targeting smart shoppers: a cross-country model. Journal of Business Economics and Management, 21(3), 679-705. https://doi.org/10.3846/jbem.2020.11851
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
References
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Atkins, K. G., Kumar, A., & Kim, Y.-K. (2016). Smart grocery shopper segments. Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 28(1), 42–53. https://doi.org/10.1080/08961530.2015.1082080
Babin, B. J., Darden, W. R., & Griffin, M. (1994). Work and/or fun: Measuring hedonic and utilitarian shopping value. Journal of Consumer Research, 20(4), 644–656. https://doi.org/10.1086/209376
Baltas, G. (1997). Determinants of store brand choice: A behavioral analysis. Journal of Product & Brand Management, 6(5), 315–324. https://doi.org/10.1108/10610429710179480
Batra, R., & Sinha, I. (2000). Consumer-level factors moderating the success of private label brands. Journal of Retailing, 76(2), 175–191. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-4359(00)00027-0
Bicen, P., & Madhavaram, S. (2013). Research on smart shopper feelings: An extension. Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, 21(2), 221–234. https://doi.org/10.2753/MTP1069-6679210207
Broderick, A. J. (2007). A cross-national study of the individual and national–cultural nomological network of consumer involvement. Psychology and Marketing, 24(4), 343–374. https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.20164
Bulut, Z. A., & Karabulut, A. N. (2018). Examining the role of two aspects of eWOM in online repurchase intention: An integrated trust-loyalty perspective. Journal of Consumer Behavior, 17(4), 407–417. https://doi.org/10.1002/cb.1721
Burton, S., Lichtenstein, D. R., Netemeyer, R. G., & Garretson, J. A. (1998). A scale for measuring attitude toward private label products and an examination of its psychological and behavioral correlates. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 26(4), 293–306. https://doi.org/10.1177/0092070398264003
Byrne, B. M. (2010). Structural equation modeling with AMOS: Basic concepts, applications, and programming. Routledge.
Cachero-Martínez, S., & Vázquez-Casielles, R. (2017a). Stimulating curiosity and consumer experience in a retailer. American Journal of Industrial and Business Management, 7(4), 473–486. https://doi.org/10.4236/ajibm.2017.74034
Cachero-Martínez, S., & Vázquez-Casielles, R. (2017b). Living positive experiences in store: How it influences shopping experience value and satisfaction? Journal of Business Economics and Management, 18(3), 537–553. https://doi.org/10.3846/16111699.2017.1292311
Castro-López, A., Vázquez-Casielles, R., & Puente, J. (2019). How to manage the online experience concerning transactional and experimental customers: Case of e-fashion sector. Journal of Economics and Management, 20(3), 595–617. https://doi.org/10.3846/jbem.2019.9860
Çelikkol, M., Kitapçi, H., & Döven, G. (2019). Culture’s impact on entrepreneurship & interaction effect of economic development level: An 81-country study. Journal of Business Economics and Management, 20(4), 777–797. https://doi.org/10.3846/jbem.2019.10180
Chandon, P., Wansink, B., & Laurent, G. (2000). A benefit congruency framework of sales promotion effectiveness. Journal of Marketing, 64(4), 65–81. https://doi.org/10.1509/jmkg.64.4.65.18071
Chelminski, P., & Coulter, R. A. (2007). On market mavens and consumer self-confidence: A crosscultural study. Psychology and Marketing, 24(1), 69–91. https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.20153
Chung, C. M. Y., & Darke, P. R. (2006). The consumer as advocate: Self-relevance, culture, and wordof-mouth. Marketing Letters, 17(4), 269–279. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11002-006-8426-7
Darke, P. R., & Dahl, D. W. (2003). Fairness and discounts: The subjective value of a bargain. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 13(3), 328–338. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327663JCP1303_13
de Pechpeyrou, P. (2013). Virtual bundling with quantity discounts: When low purchase price does not lead to smart-shopper feelings. Psychology & Marketing, 30(8), 707–723. https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.20639
Eurostat. (2017). Share in EU GDP total, 2017. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/products-eurostatnews/
Feick, L. F., & Price, L. L. (1987). The market maven: A diffuser of marketplace information. Journal of Marketing, 51(1), 83–97. https://doi.org/10.2307/1251146
Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(1), 39–50. https://doi.org/10.1177/002224378101800104
Garretson, J. A., Fisher, D., & Burton, S. (2002). Antecedents of private label attitude and national brand promotion attitude: Similarities and differences. Journal of Retailing, 78(2), 91–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-4359(02)00071-4
Groeppel-Klein, A., Thelen, E., & Antretter, C. (1999). The impact of shopping motives on store-assessment. ACR European Advances, 4, 63–72.
Hair, J. F., Black, W., Babin, B., Anderson, R., & Tatham, R. (2006). Multivariate data analysis. Pearson Prentice Hall.
Henseler, J., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2015). A new criterion for assessing discriminant validity in variance-based structural equation modeling. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 43(1), 115–135. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-014-0403-8
Hofstede, G. (2001). Cultures consequences. Comparing values, behaviors, institutions and organizations across nations. Sage Publications.
Honea, H., & Dahl, D. W. (2005). The promotion affect scale: Defining the affective dimensions of promotion. Journal of Business Research, 58(4), 543–551. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0148-2963(03)00145-0
Jarvis, C. B., MacKenzie, S. B., & Podsakoff, P. M. (2003). A critical review of construct indicators and measurement model misspecification in marketing and consumer research. Journal of Consumer Research, 30(2), 199–218. https://doi.org/10.1086/376806
Jin, B., & Sternquist, B. (2004). Shopping is truly a joy. The Service Industries Journal, 24(6), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/0264206042000299158
Labbé-Pinlon, B., Lombart, C., & Louis, D. (2011). Les smart shoppers: Profils et reactions de ces acheteurs «malins» face à des réductions de prix immédiates [The smart shoppers: Their profiles and reactions to inmediate price reductions]. Management & Avenir, 49(9), 62–83. https://doi.org/10.3917/mav.049.0062
Lichtenstein, D. R., Ridgway, N. M., & Netemeyer, R. G. (1993). Price perceptions and consumer shopping behavior: A field study. Journal of Marketing Research, 30(2), 234–245. https://doi.org/10.1177/002224379303000208
Litterio, A. M., Nantes, E. A., Larrosa, J. M., & Gómez, L. J. (2017). Marketing and social networks: A criterion for detecting opinion leaders. European Journal of Management and Business Economics, 26(3), 347–366. https://doi.org/10.1108/EJMBE-10-2017-020
Liu, T. C., & Wang, C. Y. (2008). Factors affecting attitudes toward private labels and promoted brands. Journal of Marketing Management, 24(3–4), 283–298. https://doi.org/10.1362/026725708X306103
Lombart, C., & Belvaux, B. (2004). Pour une réintégration du rôle du prix dans le comportement de shopping: mesure des orientations d’achat et typologie [For an integration of the rol of price in shopping behavior: measures of purchase orientations and typologies]. In Actes du 20ème Congrès International de l’Association Française du Marketing. Saint Malo.
Mano, H., & Elliott, M. T. (1997). Smart shopping: The origins and consequences of price savings. ACR North American Advances, 24, 504–511.
Manzur, E., Olavarrieta, S., Hidalgo, P., Farías, P., & Uribe, R. (2011). Store brand and national brand promotion attitudes antecedents. Journal of Business Research, 64(3), 286–291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2009.11.014
Mittal, B. (2016). Psychographics of comparison shoppers. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 33(1), 20–31. https://doi.org/10.1108/JCM-12-2014-1268
Odou, P., Djelassi, S., & Belvaux, B. (Eds.). (2007). Le smart shopper revisité par la perspective de la “consumer culture theory”: Cas des ODRistes. Paper Presented at the Actes Des 12e Journées de Recherche en Marketing de Bourgogne (pp. 1–17). France, Dijon.
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J. Y., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(5), 879–903. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.879
Ruvio, A., Shoham, A., & Brenčič, M. M. (2008). Consumers’ need for uniqueness: Short‐form scale development and cross‐cultural validation. International Marketing Review, 25(1), 33–53. https://doi.org/10.1108/02651330810851872
Schindler, R. M. (1989). The excitement of getting a bargain: Some hypotheses concerning the origins and effects of smart-shopper feelings. Advances in Consumer Research, 16, 447–453.
Schindler, R. M. (1998). Consequences of perceiving oneself as responsible for obtaining a discount: Evidence for smart-shopper feelings. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 7(4), 371–392. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327663jcp0704_04
Seitz, C., Pokrivčák, J., Tóth, M., & Plevný, M. (2017). Online grocery retailing in Germany: An explorative analysis. Journal of Business Economics and Management, 18(6), 1243–1263. https://doi.org/10.3846/16111699.2017.1410218
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2007). Using multivariate statistics. Allyn and Bacon Company.
Taras, V., Kirkman, B. L., & Steel, P. (2010). Examining the impact of culture’s consequences: A three decade, multilevel, meta-analytic review of Hofstede’s cultural value dimensions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95(5), 405–439. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020939
The Hofstede Center. (2017). Strategy, culture, change. https://geert-hofstede.com/countries.html
Vieira, V., Oliveira, F., & Falcao, C. (2018). A meta-analytic review of hedonic and utilitarian shopping values. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 25(4), 426–437. https://doi.org/10.1108/JCM-08-2016-1914
Yoo, B., & Donthu, N. (2001). Developing and validating a multidimensional consumer-based brand equity scale. Journal of Business Research, 52(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0148-2963(99)00098-3
Alba, J. W., & Williams, E. F. (2013). Pleasure principles: A review of research on hedonic consumption. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 23(1), 2–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcps.2012.07.003
Anderson, J. C., & Gerbing, D. W. (1988). Structural equation modeling in practice: A review and recommended two-step approach. Psychological Bulletin, 103(3), 411–423. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.103.3.411
Atkins, K. G., & Hyun, S.-Y. J. (2016). Smart shoppers’ purchasing experiences: Functions of product type, gender, and generation. International Journal of Marketing Studies, 8(2), 1–2. https://doi.org/10.5539/ijms.v8n2p1
Atkins, K. G., & Kim, Y. K. (2012). Smart shopping: Conceptualization and measurement. International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, 40(5), 360–375. https://doi.org/10.1108/09590551211222349
Atkins, K. G., Kumar, A., & Kim, Y.-K. (2016). Smart grocery shopper segments. Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 28(1), 42–53. https://doi.org/10.1080/08961530.2015.1082080
Babin, B. J., Darden, W. R., & Griffin, M. (1994). Work and/or fun: Measuring hedonic and utilitarian shopping value. Journal of Consumer Research, 20(4), 644–656. https://doi.org/10.1086/209376
Baltas, G. (1997). Determinants of store brand choice: A behavioral analysis. Journal of Product & Brand Management, 6(5), 315–324. https://doi.org/10.1108/10610429710179480
Batra, R., & Sinha, I. (2000). Consumer-level factors moderating the success of private label brands. Journal of Retailing, 76(2), 175–191. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-4359(00)00027-0
Bicen, P., & Madhavaram, S. (2013). Research on smart shopper feelings: An extension. Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, 21(2), 221–234. https://doi.org/10.2753/MTP1069-6679210207
Broderick, A. J. (2007). A cross-national study of the individual and national–cultural nomological network of consumer involvement. Psychology and Marketing, 24(4), 343–374. https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.20164
Bulut, Z. A., & Karabulut, A. N. (2018). Examining the role of two aspects of eWOM in online repurchase intention: An integrated trust-loyalty perspective. Journal of Consumer Behavior, 17(4), 407–417. https://doi.org/10.1002/cb.1721
Burton, S., Lichtenstein, D. R., Netemeyer, R. G., & Garretson, J. A. (1998). A scale for measuring attitude toward private label products and an examination of its psychological and behavioral correlates. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 26(4), 293–306. https://doi.org/10.1177/0092070398264003
Byrne, B. M. (2010). Structural equation modeling with AMOS: Basic concepts, applications, and programming. Routledge.
Cachero-Martínez, S., & Vázquez-Casielles, R. (2017a). Stimulating curiosity and consumer experience in a retailer. American Journal of Industrial and Business Management, 7(4), 473–486. https://doi.org/10.4236/ajibm.2017.74034
Cachero-Martínez, S., & Vázquez-Casielles, R. (2017b). Living positive experiences in store: How it influences shopping experience value and satisfaction? Journal of Business Economics and Management, 18(3), 537–553. https://doi.org/10.3846/16111699.2017.1292311
Castro-López, A., Vázquez-Casielles, R., & Puente, J. (2019). How to manage the online experience concerning transactional and experimental customers: Case of e-fashion sector. Journal of Economics and Management, 20(3), 595–617. https://doi.org/10.3846/jbem.2019.9860
Çelikkol, M., Kitapçi, H., & Döven, G. (2019). Culture’s impact on entrepreneurship & interaction effect of economic development level: An 81-country study. Journal of Business Economics and Management, 20(4), 777–797. https://doi.org/10.3846/jbem.2019.10180
Chandon, P., Wansink, B., & Laurent, G. (2000). A benefit congruency framework of sales promotion effectiveness. Journal of Marketing, 64(4), 65–81. https://doi.org/10.1509/jmkg.64.4.65.18071
Chelminski, P., & Coulter, R. A. (2007). On market mavens and consumer self-confidence: A crosscultural study. Psychology and Marketing, 24(1), 69–91. https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.20153
Chung, C. M. Y., & Darke, P. R. (2006). The consumer as advocate: Self-relevance, culture, and wordof-mouth. Marketing Letters, 17(4), 269–279. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11002-006-8426-7
Darke, P. R., & Dahl, D. W. (2003). Fairness and discounts: The subjective value of a bargain. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 13(3), 328–338. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327663JCP1303_13
de Pechpeyrou, P. (2013). Virtual bundling with quantity discounts: When low purchase price does not lead to smart-shopper feelings. Psychology & Marketing, 30(8), 707–723. https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.20639
Eurostat. (2017). Share in EU GDP total, 2017. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/products-eurostatnews/
Feick, L. F., & Price, L. L. (1987). The market maven: A diffuser of marketplace information. Journal of Marketing, 51(1), 83–97. https://doi.org/10.2307/1251146
Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(1), 39–50. https://doi.org/10.1177/002224378101800104
Garretson, J. A., Fisher, D., & Burton, S. (2002). Antecedents of private label attitude and national brand promotion attitude: Similarities and differences. Journal of Retailing, 78(2), 91–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-4359(02)00071-4
Groeppel-Klein, A., Thelen, E., & Antretter, C. (1999). The impact of shopping motives on store-assessment. ACR European Advances, 4, 63–72.
Hair, J. F., Black, W., Babin, B., Anderson, R., & Tatham, R. (2006). Multivariate data analysis. Pearson Prentice Hall.
Henseler, J., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2015). A new criterion for assessing discriminant validity in variance-based structural equation modeling. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 43(1), 115–135. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-014-0403-8
Hofstede, G. (2001). Cultures consequences. Comparing values, behaviors, institutions and organizations across nations. Sage Publications.
Honea, H., & Dahl, D. W. (2005). The promotion affect scale: Defining the affective dimensions of promotion. Journal of Business Research, 58(4), 543–551. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0148-2963(03)00145-0
Jarvis, C. B., MacKenzie, S. B., & Podsakoff, P. M. (2003). A critical review of construct indicators and measurement model misspecification in marketing and consumer research. Journal of Consumer Research, 30(2), 199–218. https://doi.org/10.1086/376806
Jin, B., & Sternquist, B. (2004). Shopping is truly a joy. The Service Industries Journal, 24(6), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/0264206042000299158
Labbé-Pinlon, B., Lombart, C., & Louis, D. (2011). Les smart shoppers: Profils et reactions de ces acheteurs «malins» face à des réductions de prix immédiates [The smart shoppers: Their profiles and reactions to inmediate price reductions]. Management & Avenir, 49(9), 62–83. https://doi.org/10.3917/mav.049.0062
Lichtenstein, D. R., Ridgway, N. M., & Netemeyer, R. G. (1993). Price perceptions and consumer shopping behavior: A field study. Journal of Marketing Research, 30(2), 234–245. https://doi.org/10.1177/002224379303000208
Litterio, A. M., Nantes, E. A., Larrosa, J. M., & Gómez, L. J. (2017). Marketing and social networks: A criterion for detecting opinion leaders. European Journal of Management and Business Economics, 26(3), 347–366. https://doi.org/10.1108/EJMBE-10-2017-020
Liu, T. C., & Wang, C. Y. (2008). Factors affecting attitudes toward private labels and promoted brands. Journal of Marketing Management, 24(3–4), 283–298. https://doi.org/10.1362/026725708X306103
Lombart, C., & Belvaux, B. (2004). Pour une réintégration du rôle du prix dans le comportement de shopping: mesure des orientations d’achat et typologie [For an integration of the rol of price in shopping behavior: measures of purchase orientations and typologies]. In Actes du 20ème Congrès International de l’Association Française du Marketing. Saint Malo.
Mano, H., & Elliott, M. T. (1997). Smart shopping: The origins and consequences of price savings. ACR North American Advances, 24, 504–511.
Manzur, E., Olavarrieta, S., Hidalgo, P., Farías, P., & Uribe, R. (2011). Store brand and national brand promotion attitudes antecedents. Journal of Business Research, 64(3), 286–291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2009.11.014
Mittal, B. (2016). Psychographics of comparison shoppers. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 33(1), 20–31. https://doi.org/10.1108/JCM-12-2014-1268
Odou, P., Djelassi, S., & Belvaux, B. (Eds.). (2007). Le smart shopper revisité par la perspective de la “consumer culture theory”: Cas des ODRistes. Paper Presented at the Actes Des 12e Journées de Recherche en Marketing de Bourgogne (pp. 1–17). France, Dijon.
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J. Y., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(5), 879–903. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.879
Ruvio, A., Shoham, A., & Brenčič, M. M. (2008). Consumers’ need for uniqueness: Short‐form scale development and cross‐cultural validation. International Marketing Review, 25(1), 33–53. https://doi.org/10.1108/02651330810851872
Schindler, R. M. (1989). The excitement of getting a bargain: Some hypotheses concerning the origins and effects of smart-shopper feelings. Advances in Consumer Research, 16, 447–453.
Schindler, R. M. (1998). Consequences of perceiving oneself as responsible for obtaining a discount: Evidence for smart-shopper feelings. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 7(4), 371–392. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327663jcp0704_04
Seitz, C., Pokrivčák, J., Tóth, M., & Plevný, M. (2017). Online grocery retailing in Germany: An explorative analysis. Journal of Business Economics and Management, 18(6), 1243–1263. https://doi.org/10.3846/16111699.2017.1410218
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2007). Using multivariate statistics. Allyn and Bacon Company.
Taras, V., Kirkman, B. L., & Steel, P. (2010). Examining the impact of culture’s consequences: A three decade, multilevel, meta-analytic review of Hofstede’s cultural value dimensions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95(5), 405–439. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020939
The Hofstede Center. (2017). Strategy, culture, change. https://geert-hofstede.com/countries.html
Vieira, V., Oliveira, F., & Falcao, C. (2018). A meta-analytic review of hedonic and utilitarian shopping values. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 25(4), 426–437. https://doi.org/10.1108/JCM-08-2016-1914
Yoo, B., & Donthu, N. (2001). Developing and validating a multidimensional consumer-based brand equity scale. Journal of Business Research, 52(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0148-2963(99)00098-3