Leadership style preferences in Bangladesh’s SMEs: A study on transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership
Abstract
Purpose – over the years, small and medium enterprises (SMEs) have grappled with the challenge of adopting appropriate leadership styles domestically and globally. This study, thus, seeks to identify the prevalent leadership styles in Bangladesh’s SME sector, with a specific emphasis on transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership.
Research methodology – a positivist research approach was employed to collect and analyse a dataset of 410 samples collected through a self-administered questionnaire survey to different SME owners and managers in Bangladesh. Descriptive statistics were employed for data analyses. Findings – the results revealed that generally SMEs are not recognised with universally accepted leadership style in practice in Bangladesh. Instead, leaders tend to employ all three styles based on individual preferences. Additionally, transformational leadership emerged as the most commonly practiced style, followed by transactional and laissez-faire leadership.
Research limitations – the study’s applicability is limited to SME owners and managers, specifically those in urban SMEs within a specific region. Thus, the generalisability of the results to employees and SMEs in rural contexts in Bangladesh presents a challenge.
Practical implications – the research insights may be used as valuable guidelines for SME owners and managers in conceptualising leadership styles and their practices, especially in Bangladesh’s SME sector.
Originality/Value – the originality of this research lies in addressing a critical issue where many struggle to apply suitable leadership approaches in varying situations.
Keyword : transformational leadership, transactional leadership, laissez-faire leadership, SME, Bangladesh
How to Cite
Hossin, M., Azam, S., & Hossain, S. (2024). Leadership style preferences in Bangladesh’s SMEs: A study on transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership. Business, Management and Economics Engineering, 22(2), 278–296. https://doi.org/10.3846/bmee.2024.19944
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
References
Abernethy, C., & Dahlberg, E. (2018). Leadership styles in SMEs – A quantitative study of the leadership styles exhibited by managers of SMEs in Sweden through the use of the multifactor leadership questionnaire [Master’s thesis, Lunds University]. Lunds University Theses and Dissertations Archive. https://lup.lub.lu.se/luur/download?func=downloadFile&recordOId=8946008&fileOId=8946025
Aboramadan, M., & Dahleez, K. A. (2020). Leadership styles and employees’ work outcomes in nonprofit organizations: The role of work engagement. Journal of Management Development, 39(7/8), 869–893. https://doi.org/10.1108/JMD-12-2019-0499
Alavi, S., Rabah, S., & Jones, A. (2021). Studying transactional and transformational leader and leadership in government and private organizations in UAE. International Journal of Management (IJM), 12(4), 808–820.
Alblooshi, M., Shamsuzzaman, M., & Haridy, S. (2021). The relationship between leadership styles and organisational innovation: A systematic literature review and narrative synthesis. European Journal of Innovation Management, 24(2), 338–370. https://doi.org/10.1108/EJIM-11-2019-0339
Arham, A. F. (2014). Leadership and performance: The case of Malaysian SMEs in the services sector. International Journal of Asian Social Science, 2(3), 343–355. https://archive.aessweb.com/index.php/5007/article/view/2638
Arsawan, Y. E., Pasek, K., & Suryantini, P. S. (2017). Impact of transformational and transactional leadership styles on organizational commitment and SMEs business performance: A comparative analysis. International Business Management, 11(8–10), 1583–1591.
Bass, B. M. (1985). Leadership and performance beyond expectations. Collier Macmillan.
Bass, B. M. (1990). From transactional to transformational leadership: Learning to share the vision. Organizational Dynamics, 18(3), 19–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/0090-2616(90)90061-S
Bass, B. M., & Riggio, R. E. (2012). Transformational leadership (2nd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publisher.
Bass, B. M., & Avolio, B. J. (1994). Improving organizational effectiveness through transformational leadership. Sage Publications.
Bass, B. M., & Avolio, B. J. (2004). Multifactor leadership questionnaire. Manual and sampler set (3rd ed.). Mindgarden.
Begum, L. A., Talukder, M. S., Rahman, M. M., Das, R. C., Bhattacharjee, P., & Miah, M. N. (2022). Estimating the contribution of SME output on GDP growth in Bangladesh: A VECM approach (Special Research Work-SP 2022-02). Research Department Division-4, Bangladesh Bank. https://www.bb.org.bd//pub/special//smeoutputongdp_nov2022.pdf
Bernhard, F., & O’Driscoll, M. P. (2011). Psychological ownership in small family-owned businesses: Leadership style and nonfamily employees work attitudes and behaviors. Group & Organization Management, 36(3), 345–384. https://doi.org/10.1177/1059601111402684
Biggerstaff, J. K. (2012). The relationship between teacher perceptions of elementary school principal leadership style and teacher job satisfaction [Doctoral dissertation, Western Kentucky University]. http://digitalcommons.wku.edu/diss/22
Buil, I., Martínez, E., & Matute, J. (2019). Transformational leadership and employee performance: The role of identification, engagement and proactive personality. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 77, 64–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2018.06.014
Burns, J. M. (1978). Leadership. Harper & Row.
Carless, S. A., Wearing, A. J., & Mann, L. A. (2000). A short measure of transformational leadership. Journal of Business and Psychology, 14, 389–405. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022991115523
Cui, F., Lim, H., & Song, J. (2022). The influence of leadership style in China SMEs on enterprise innovation performance: The mediating roles of organizational learning. Sustainability, 14(6), Article 3249. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14063249
Delaney, J. C. (2020). The effect of leadership styles on business performance on Florida SMEs: A qualitative case study [Doctoral dissertation, Northcentral University]. https://www.proquest.com/openview/cf05d17ab508b0c40b2a9caebc81ab31/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=44156
Donald Clark, D. (1997). Leadership style survey. http://www.nwlink.com/~Donclark/leader/survstyl.html
Franco, M., & Matos, P. G. (2015). Leadership styles in SMEs: A mixed-method approach. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 11(2), 425–451. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-013-0283-2
Friedman, M. (1937). The use of ranks to avoid the assumption of normality implicit in the analysis of variance. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 32(200), 675–701. https://doi.org/10.1080/01621459.1937.10503522
Ghosh, B. C., Liang, T. W., Meng, T. T., & Chan, B. (2001). The key success factors, distinctive capabilities, and strategic thrusts of top SMEs in Singapore. Journal of Business Research, 51(3), 209–221. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0148-2963(99)00047-8
Hannah, S. T., Perez, A. L., Lester, P. B., & Quick, J. C. (2020). Bolstering workplace psychological well-being through transactional and transformational leadership. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 27(3), 222–240. https://doi.org/10.1177/1548051820933623
Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2010). Multivariate data analysis (7th ed.). Pearson.
Hossin, M. M., Azam, M. S., & Hossain, M. S. (2023a). Leadership in SMEs: A review of different leadership styles and their relevance to SME management. Asian Journal of Management, Entrepreneurship and Social Science, 3(1), 70–92.
Hossin, M. M., Azam, M. S., & Hossain, M. S. (2023b). Practicing leadership: The road to success of SMEs in Bangladesh. Brindaban Government College Journal, 2(1), 5–18. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/375165026_Practicing_leadership_The_road_to_success_of_SMEs_in_Bangladesh
Hu, B., Harold, C. M., & Kim, D. (2023). Stealing time on the company’s dime: Examining the indirect effect of laissez-faire leadership on employee time theft. Journal of Business Ethics, 183(2), 475–493. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-022-05077-2
Hung, D. K. M., Effendi, A. A., Talib, L. S. A., & Rani, N. A. B. A. (2011). A preliminary study of top SMEs in Malaysia: Key success factor vs government support program. Journal of Global Business and Economics, 2(1), 48–58. https://econpapers.repec.org/article/grg01biss/v_3a2_3ay_3a2011_3ai_3a1_3ap_3a48-58.htm
Islam, S., & Hossain, F. (2018). Constraints to small and medium-sized enterprises development in Bangladesh: Results from a cross-sectional study. The European Journal of Applied Economics, 15(2), 58–73. https://doi.org/10.5937/EJAE15-17015
Jabeen, S. (2022). What is the role of transformational leadership in SMEs? A review paper. South Asian Review of Business and Administrative Studies (SABAS), 4(1).
Jackson, G. R. (2021). Overcoming small to medium business failure through leadership strategies. Open Journal of Business and Management, 9(1), 353–365. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojbm.2021.91019
Khalily, M. A. B., Uddin, M. J., Ullah, M. S., & Tareq, M. (2020). Development of SMEs in Bangladesh: Lessons from the German experience. Friedrich-Ebert-Sifting (FES) & Bangladesh Small and Medium Enterprise (SME) Foundation. https://library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/bangladesch/17895.pdf
Khan, A. Z., & Adnan, N. (2014). Impact of leadership styles on organizational performance. International Journal of Management Sciences, 2(11), 501–515.
Khan, M. I., Awan, U., Yasir, M., Mohamad, N. A. B., Shah, S. H. A., Qureshi, M. I., & Zaman, K. (2014). Transformational leadership, emotional intelligence and organizational commitment: Pakistan’s services sector. Argumenta Oeconomica, 2(33), 68–92. https://doi.org/10.15611/aoe.2014.2.04
Krejcie, R. V., & Morgan, D. W. (1970). Determining sample size for research activities. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 30(3), 607–610. https://doi.org/10.1177/001316447003000308
Kihara, P., Bwisa, H., & Kihoro, J. (2016). Relationship between leadership styles in strategy implementation and performance of small and medium manufacturing firms in Thika sub-county, Kenya. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 6(6), 216–227. https://repository.cuk.ac.ke/xmlui/handle/123456789/258
Koryak, O., Mole, K. F., Lockett, A., Hayton, J. C., Ucbasaran, D., & Hodgkinson, G. P. (2015). Entrepreneurial leadership, capabilities and firm growth. International Small Business Journal, 33(1), 89–105. https://doi.org/10.1177/0266242614558315
Lewin, K., Lippitt, R., & White, R. K. (1939). Patterns of aggressive behavior in experimentally created “social climates”. The Journal of Social Psychology, 10(2), 269–299. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.1939.9713366
Lundmark, R., Richter, A., & Tafvelin, S. (2022). Consequences of managers’ laissez-faire leadership during organizational restructuring. Journal of Change Management, 22, 40–58. https://doi.org/10.1080/14697017.2021.1951811
Madanchian, M., & Taherdoost, H. (2017). Role of leadership in small and medium enterprises (SMEs). International Journal of Economics and Management Systems, 2, 240–243.
Malachy, O. D. Y., Ahmad, B. A., & Gambo, M. A. (2019). Leadership style and performance of small and medium enterprises in Kaduna State, Nigeria. Crawford Journal of Business and Social Science, 9, 16–30.
Malik, A., Khan, N., Faisal, S., Javed, S., & Faridi, A. M. R. (2020). An investigation on leadership styles for the business productivity and sustainability of small medium enterprises (SMEs). International Journal of Entrepreneurship, 24(5).
Matira, K. M., & Awolusi, O. D. (2020). Leaders and managers styles towards employee centricity: A study of hospitality industry in United Arab Emirates. Information Management and Business Review, 12(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.22610/imbr.v12i1(I).2891
Moragolle, D. (2022). The effect of leadership style on business performance and the mediating effect on organizational culture and the moderating effect of leader’s personality traits. A study of SMEs in the tourism sector in Sri Lanka. [Doctoral dissertation, University of Wales Trinity Saint David].
Mwakajila, H. M., & Nyello, R. M. (2021). Leadership styles, firm characteristics and business financial performance of small and medium enterprises (SMEs) in Tanzania. Open Journal of Business and Management, 9(4), 1696–1713. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojbm.2021.94093
Mwesigwa, R., Tusiime, I., & Ssekiziyivu, B. (2020). Leadership styles, job satisfaction and organizational commitment among academic staff in public universities. Journal of Management Development, 39(2), 253–268. https://doi.org/10.1108/JMD-02-2018-0055
Nazarian, A., Soares, A., & Lottermoser, T. (2017). Inherited organizational performance? The perceptions of generation Y on the influence of leadership styles. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 38(8), 1078–1094. https://doi.org/10.1108/LODJ-05-2016-0119
Northouse, P. G. (2016). Leadership: Theory and practice (7th ed.). Sage Publications.
Oyelade, K. A., & Akpa, V. O. (2022). Transformational leadership and profitability of selected SMEs in Lagos state, Nigeria. The Strategic Journal of Business and Change Management, 9(2), 1029–1044. https://doi.org/10.61426/sjbcm.v9i2.2317
Oyelade, K. A., Akpa, V. O., Olawore, O. P., Adesanya, A. S., & James, M. T. (2022). Transactional leadership style and market share of selected SMEs in Lagos State, Nigeria. Journal of Human Resource & Leadership, 6(2), 57–71. https://doi.org/10.53819/81018102t4059
Paudel, S. (2020). Leadership style and business performance in Nepali SMEs: The mediating role of entrepreneurship orientation. Journal of Business and Management Research, 3(1–2), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.3126/jbmr.v3i1.31971
Paulienė, R. (2012). Transforming leadership styles and knowledge sharing in a multicultural context. Business, Management and Economics Engineering, 10(1), 91–109. https://doi.org/10.3846/bme.2012.08
Podsakoff, P. M., Todor, W. D., Grover, R. A., & Huber, V. L. (1984). Situational moderators of leader reward and punishment behaviors: Fact or fiction? Organizational Behavior and Human performance, 34(1), 21–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/0030-5073(84)90036-9
Rasheed, M. A., Shahzad, K., & Nadeem, S. (2021). Transformational leadership and employee voice for product and process innovation in SMEs. Innovation & Management Review, 18(1), 69–89. https://doi.org/10.1108/INMR-01-2020-0007
Robert, V. (2021). Three essays on the effects of laissez-faire leadership on employees’ job attitudes and psychological well-being [Doctoral dissertation, HEC Montreal]. https://biblos.hec.ca/biblio/theses/robert_veronique_t2021.pdf
Saeed, M., & Mughal, Y. H. (2019). Role of transactional leadership style upon performance: Mediating role of culture. Journal of Managerial Sciences, 13(1), 47–57.
Sinha, E. (2022). ‘PREFACE’ Leadership in times of crises: Evidence from Indian SME sector. In Managing human resources in SMEs and start-ups: International challenges and solutions (pp. 301–320). World Scientific. https://doi.org/10.1142/9789811239212_0014
Small and Medium Enterprises Foundation (SMEF). (2023). SME data statistics [Data set]. http://smedata.smef.gov.bd
Thanh, D. C., Nhung, P. L., Nghiem, L., & Phat, L. T. (2022). Study on the impact of transformation leadership on performance of small and medium enterprises in Can Tho City, Vietnam. Science & Technology Development Journal: Economics – Law & Management, 6(2), 2357–2372. https://doi.org/10.32508/stdjelm.v6i2.866
Tran, M., Phan, T., Ha, H., & Hoang, T. (2020). The impact of transactional leadership on supply chain quality and performance. Uncertain Supply Chain Management, 8(4), 773–784. https://doi.org/10.5267/j.uscm.2020.7.002
Ur Rehman, S., Bhatti, A., & Chaudhry, N. I. (2019). Mediating effect of innovative culture and organizational learning between leadership styles at third-order and organizational performance in Malaysian SMEs. Journal of Global Entrepreneurship Research, 9(1), Article 36. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40497-019-0159-1
Weber, M. (1947). The theory of social and economic organization. Free Press.
Yamane, T. (1967). Statistics: An introductory analysis (2nd ed.). Harper & Raw.
Yukl, G., & Gardner, W. 2020). Leadership in organizations (9th ed.). Pearson Education.
Aboramadan, M., & Dahleez, K. A. (2020). Leadership styles and employees’ work outcomes in nonprofit organizations: The role of work engagement. Journal of Management Development, 39(7/8), 869–893. https://doi.org/10.1108/JMD-12-2019-0499
Alavi, S., Rabah, S., & Jones, A. (2021). Studying transactional and transformational leader and leadership in government and private organizations in UAE. International Journal of Management (IJM), 12(4), 808–820.
Alblooshi, M., Shamsuzzaman, M., & Haridy, S. (2021). The relationship between leadership styles and organisational innovation: A systematic literature review and narrative synthesis. European Journal of Innovation Management, 24(2), 338–370. https://doi.org/10.1108/EJIM-11-2019-0339
Arham, A. F. (2014). Leadership and performance: The case of Malaysian SMEs in the services sector. International Journal of Asian Social Science, 2(3), 343–355. https://archive.aessweb.com/index.php/5007/article/view/2638
Arsawan, Y. E., Pasek, K., & Suryantini, P. S. (2017). Impact of transformational and transactional leadership styles on organizational commitment and SMEs business performance: A comparative analysis. International Business Management, 11(8–10), 1583–1591.
Bass, B. M. (1985). Leadership and performance beyond expectations. Collier Macmillan.
Bass, B. M. (1990). From transactional to transformational leadership: Learning to share the vision. Organizational Dynamics, 18(3), 19–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/0090-2616(90)90061-S
Bass, B. M., & Riggio, R. E. (2012). Transformational leadership (2nd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publisher.
Bass, B. M., & Avolio, B. J. (1994). Improving organizational effectiveness through transformational leadership. Sage Publications.
Bass, B. M., & Avolio, B. J. (2004). Multifactor leadership questionnaire. Manual and sampler set (3rd ed.). Mindgarden.
Begum, L. A., Talukder, M. S., Rahman, M. M., Das, R. C., Bhattacharjee, P., & Miah, M. N. (2022). Estimating the contribution of SME output on GDP growth in Bangladesh: A VECM approach (Special Research Work-SP 2022-02). Research Department Division-4, Bangladesh Bank. https://www.bb.org.bd//pub/special//smeoutputongdp_nov2022.pdf
Bernhard, F., & O’Driscoll, M. P. (2011). Psychological ownership in small family-owned businesses: Leadership style and nonfamily employees work attitudes and behaviors. Group & Organization Management, 36(3), 345–384. https://doi.org/10.1177/1059601111402684
Biggerstaff, J. K. (2012). The relationship between teacher perceptions of elementary school principal leadership style and teacher job satisfaction [Doctoral dissertation, Western Kentucky University]. http://digitalcommons.wku.edu/diss/22
Buil, I., Martínez, E., & Matute, J. (2019). Transformational leadership and employee performance: The role of identification, engagement and proactive personality. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 77, 64–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2018.06.014
Burns, J. M. (1978). Leadership. Harper & Row.
Carless, S. A., Wearing, A. J., & Mann, L. A. (2000). A short measure of transformational leadership. Journal of Business and Psychology, 14, 389–405. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022991115523
Cui, F., Lim, H., & Song, J. (2022). The influence of leadership style in China SMEs on enterprise innovation performance: The mediating roles of organizational learning. Sustainability, 14(6), Article 3249. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14063249
Delaney, J. C. (2020). The effect of leadership styles on business performance on Florida SMEs: A qualitative case study [Doctoral dissertation, Northcentral University]. https://www.proquest.com/openview/cf05d17ab508b0c40b2a9caebc81ab31/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=44156
Donald Clark, D. (1997). Leadership style survey. http://www.nwlink.com/~Donclark/leader/survstyl.html
Franco, M., & Matos, P. G. (2015). Leadership styles in SMEs: A mixed-method approach. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 11(2), 425–451. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-013-0283-2
Friedman, M. (1937). The use of ranks to avoid the assumption of normality implicit in the analysis of variance. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 32(200), 675–701. https://doi.org/10.1080/01621459.1937.10503522
Ghosh, B. C., Liang, T. W., Meng, T. T., & Chan, B. (2001). The key success factors, distinctive capabilities, and strategic thrusts of top SMEs in Singapore. Journal of Business Research, 51(3), 209–221. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0148-2963(99)00047-8
Hannah, S. T., Perez, A. L., Lester, P. B., & Quick, J. C. (2020). Bolstering workplace psychological well-being through transactional and transformational leadership. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 27(3), 222–240. https://doi.org/10.1177/1548051820933623
Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2010). Multivariate data analysis (7th ed.). Pearson.
Hossin, M. M., Azam, M. S., & Hossain, M. S. (2023a). Leadership in SMEs: A review of different leadership styles and their relevance to SME management. Asian Journal of Management, Entrepreneurship and Social Science, 3(1), 70–92.
Hossin, M. M., Azam, M. S., & Hossain, M. S. (2023b). Practicing leadership: The road to success of SMEs in Bangladesh. Brindaban Government College Journal, 2(1), 5–18. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/375165026_Practicing_leadership_The_road_to_success_of_SMEs_in_Bangladesh
Hu, B., Harold, C. M., & Kim, D. (2023). Stealing time on the company’s dime: Examining the indirect effect of laissez-faire leadership on employee time theft. Journal of Business Ethics, 183(2), 475–493. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-022-05077-2
Hung, D. K. M., Effendi, A. A., Talib, L. S. A., & Rani, N. A. B. A. (2011). A preliminary study of top SMEs in Malaysia: Key success factor vs government support program. Journal of Global Business and Economics, 2(1), 48–58. https://econpapers.repec.org/article/grg01biss/v_3a2_3ay_3a2011_3ai_3a1_3ap_3a48-58.htm
Islam, S., & Hossain, F. (2018). Constraints to small and medium-sized enterprises development in Bangladesh: Results from a cross-sectional study. The European Journal of Applied Economics, 15(2), 58–73. https://doi.org/10.5937/EJAE15-17015
Jabeen, S. (2022). What is the role of transformational leadership in SMEs? A review paper. South Asian Review of Business and Administrative Studies (SABAS), 4(1).
Jackson, G. R. (2021). Overcoming small to medium business failure through leadership strategies. Open Journal of Business and Management, 9(1), 353–365. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojbm.2021.91019
Khalily, M. A. B., Uddin, M. J., Ullah, M. S., & Tareq, M. (2020). Development of SMEs in Bangladesh: Lessons from the German experience. Friedrich-Ebert-Sifting (FES) & Bangladesh Small and Medium Enterprise (SME) Foundation. https://library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/bangladesch/17895.pdf
Khan, A. Z., & Adnan, N. (2014). Impact of leadership styles on organizational performance. International Journal of Management Sciences, 2(11), 501–515.
Khan, M. I., Awan, U., Yasir, M., Mohamad, N. A. B., Shah, S. H. A., Qureshi, M. I., & Zaman, K. (2014). Transformational leadership, emotional intelligence and organizational commitment: Pakistan’s services sector. Argumenta Oeconomica, 2(33), 68–92. https://doi.org/10.15611/aoe.2014.2.04
Krejcie, R. V., & Morgan, D. W. (1970). Determining sample size for research activities. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 30(3), 607–610. https://doi.org/10.1177/001316447003000308
Kihara, P., Bwisa, H., & Kihoro, J. (2016). Relationship between leadership styles in strategy implementation and performance of small and medium manufacturing firms in Thika sub-county, Kenya. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 6(6), 216–227. https://repository.cuk.ac.ke/xmlui/handle/123456789/258
Koryak, O., Mole, K. F., Lockett, A., Hayton, J. C., Ucbasaran, D., & Hodgkinson, G. P. (2015). Entrepreneurial leadership, capabilities and firm growth. International Small Business Journal, 33(1), 89–105. https://doi.org/10.1177/0266242614558315
Lewin, K., Lippitt, R., & White, R. K. (1939). Patterns of aggressive behavior in experimentally created “social climates”. The Journal of Social Psychology, 10(2), 269–299. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.1939.9713366
Lundmark, R., Richter, A., & Tafvelin, S. (2022). Consequences of managers’ laissez-faire leadership during organizational restructuring. Journal of Change Management, 22, 40–58. https://doi.org/10.1080/14697017.2021.1951811
Madanchian, M., & Taherdoost, H. (2017). Role of leadership in small and medium enterprises (SMEs). International Journal of Economics and Management Systems, 2, 240–243.
Malachy, O. D. Y., Ahmad, B. A., & Gambo, M. A. (2019). Leadership style and performance of small and medium enterprises in Kaduna State, Nigeria. Crawford Journal of Business and Social Science, 9, 16–30.
Malik, A., Khan, N., Faisal, S., Javed, S., & Faridi, A. M. R. (2020). An investigation on leadership styles for the business productivity and sustainability of small medium enterprises (SMEs). International Journal of Entrepreneurship, 24(5).
Matira, K. M., & Awolusi, O. D. (2020). Leaders and managers styles towards employee centricity: A study of hospitality industry in United Arab Emirates. Information Management and Business Review, 12(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.22610/imbr.v12i1(I).2891
Moragolle, D. (2022). The effect of leadership style on business performance and the mediating effect on organizational culture and the moderating effect of leader’s personality traits. A study of SMEs in the tourism sector in Sri Lanka. [Doctoral dissertation, University of Wales Trinity Saint David].
Mwakajila, H. M., & Nyello, R. M. (2021). Leadership styles, firm characteristics and business financial performance of small and medium enterprises (SMEs) in Tanzania. Open Journal of Business and Management, 9(4), 1696–1713. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojbm.2021.94093
Mwesigwa, R., Tusiime, I., & Ssekiziyivu, B. (2020). Leadership styles, job satisfaction and organizational commitment among academic staff in public universities. Journal of Management Development, 39(2), 253–268. https://doi.org/10.1108/JMD-02-2018-0055
Nazarian, A., Soares, A., & Lottermoser, T. (2017). Inherited organizational performance? The perceptions of generation Y on the influence of leadership styles. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 38(8), 1078–1094. https://doi.org/10.1108/LODJ-05-2016-0119
Northouse, P. G. (2016). Leadership: Theory and practice (7th ed.). Sage Publications.
Oyelade, K. A., & Akpa, V. O. (2022). Transformational leadership and profitability of selected SMEs in Lagos state, Nigeria. The Strategic Journal of Business and Change Management, 9(2), 1029–1044. https://doi.org/10.61426/sjbcm.v9i2.2317
Oyelade, K. A., Akpa, V. O., Olawore, O. P., Adesanya, A. S., & James, M. T. (2022). Transactional leadership style and market share of selected SMEs in Lagos State, Nigeria. Journal of Human Resource & Leadership, 6(2), 57–71. https://doi.org/10.53819/81018102t4059
Paudel, S. (2020). Leadership style and business performance in Nepali SMEs: The mediating role of entrepreneurship orientation. Journal of Business and Management Research, 3(1–2), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.3126/jbmr.v3i1.31971
Paulienė, R. (2012). Transforming leadership styles and knowledge sharing in a multicultural context. Business, Management and Economics Engineering, 10(1), 91–109. https://doi.org/10.3846/bme.2012.08
Podsakoff, P. M., Todor, W. D., Grover, R. A., & Huber, V. L. (1984). Situational moderators of leader reward and punishment behaviors: Fact or fiction? Organizational Behavior and Human performance, 34(1), 21–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/0030-5073(84)90036-9
Rasheed, M. A., Shahzad, K., & Nadeem, S. (2021). Transformational leadership and employee voice for product and process innovation in SMEs. Innovation & Management Review, 18(1), 69–89. https://doi.org/10.1108/INMR-01-2020-0007
Robert, V. (2021). Three essays on the effects of laissez-faire leadership on employees’ job attitudes and psychological well-being [Doctoral dissertation, HEC Montreal]. https://biblos.hec.ca/biblio/theses/robert_veronique_t2021.pdf
Saeed, M., & Mughal, Y. H. (2019). Role of transactional leadership style upon performance: Mediating role of culture. Journal of Managerial Sciences, 13(1), 47–57.
Sinha, E. (2022). ‘PREFACE’ Leadership in times of crises: Evidence from Indian SME sector. In Managing human resources in SMEs and start-ups: International challenges and solutions (pp. 301–320). World Scientific. https://doi.org/10.1142/9789811239212_0014
Small and Medium Enterprises Foundation (SMEF). (2023). SME data statistics [Data set]. http://smedata.smef.gov.bd
Thanh, D. C., Nhung, P. L., Nghiem, L., & Phat, L. T. (2022). Study on the impact of transformation leadership on performance of small and medium enterprises in Can Tho City, Vietnam. Science & Technology Development Journal: Economics – Law & Management, 6(2), 2357–2372. https://doi.org/10.32508/stdjelm.v6i2.866
Tran, M., Phan, T., Ha, H., & Hoang, T. (2020). The impact of transactional leadership on supply chain quality and performance. Uncertain Supply Chain Management, 8(4), 773–784. https://doi.org/10.5267/j.uscm.2020.7.002
Ur Rehman, S., Bhatti, A., & Chaudhry, N. I. (2019). Mediating effect of innovative culture and organizational learning between leadership styles at third-order and organizational performance in Malaysian SMEs. Journal of Global Entrepreneurship Research, 9(1), Article 36. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40497-019-0159-1
Weber, M. (1947). The theory of social and economic organization. Free Press.
Yamane, T. (1967). Statistics: An introductory analysis (2nd ed.). Harper & Raw.
Yukl, G., & Gardner, W. 2020). Leadership in organizations (9th ed.). Pearson Education.